Introduction

The Internet space, inherently dominated by the organization of digits, has in recent years become a battleground for Latin, Cyrillic, and ideographic scripts. Since the birth of the Internet, due to objective reasons, the development of information products has followed a path of anglicization, and for a long time, domain names were represented solely by Latin letters and sometimes by numbers. However, the situation is changing.

Much of this change is associated with the development of alternative IT giants in countries where English is not the native language, such as Korea and China. Furthermore, multilingualism on the Internet ensures that language does not become a barrier to accessing the benefits of humanity. Indeed, the desire of nations to assert their sovereignty in virtual space becomes increasingly evident. D.S. Barinova notes that “the level of development of the national domain zone and how it is used by the state, business, and society can serve as an indicator of the development and effectiveness of the state” (Barinova, 2010, 308). Thus, over time, Cyrillic and ideographic characters appear in the domain system, and the use of different systems on the Internet emphasizes the multipolarity of political and social attitudes. On the other hand, the desire of countries to use their national language signifies an aspiration to emphasize informational sovereignty. Moreover, there exist a number of organizations and language activism movement, such as a long-standing research project The IDN World Report[1] that believe that international domain names contribute to linguistic diversity online. Their aim is to enable users to navigate the Internet in their native language, promote multilingualism and universal access to cyberspace.

This trajectory of domain name development and the states’ determination to defend their sovereignty and interests in the Internet space highlight the relevance of researching this direction, so as O. V. Dedova and M. S. Kuprienko state, the name takes on the role of a beacon, a navigator in the online world, a landmark in electronic information space (Dedova, Kuprienko, 2013: 63). Moreover, the phenomenon of creativity in creating domain names remains a relatively understudied area of linguistics, particularly domain names registered in non-Latin scripts, known as internationalized domain names. For example, as Yu. E. Polyak carried research on internationalized Cyrillic domains, he mentioned several reasons why new domain names with native language characters can be popular. The researcher pointed out that when a new domain zone emerges, many ‘tasty’ names appear that were previously occupied – names of goods, proper names, geographical concepts etc. In addition, using native language makes it possible accurately and unambiguously indicate objects (Polyak, 2018: 116). Indeed, up to now, far too little attention has been paid to domain names in general and to certain peculiarities in such countries as China, where giant technology companies and vast Internet market give insights into the key global trends. Thus, this paper attempts to contribute to Internet onomastics research as well as to address the issue of hieroglyphic and numeric domain names.

Methods and materials of the study

The use of national languages is mostly discussed relating to the localization of websites, where navigation sections and site content are adapted to the national-cultural specificity of users. However, researchers have recently addressed issues of the status and naming of domain names, as well as linguistic creativity and innovations in domain naming. Many of these works have served as a theoretical basis for our research, that is to say, study on phenomena of Internet communication (Khazova, 2023); research on main trends, problems and selection mechanisms of domain names (Zhiltsov, 2020); study on the development of different domain systems, including works on cyberspace management systems (specifically related to domain names and IP addresses) (Kalyatin, 2002; Zakalkin, 2022); study on the development of onomastic space of the Internet (Kersten, Lotze, 2022; Suprun, 2004); examination of the names of websites as a special phenomenon in Internet onomastics (Zubareva, 2021b); research on domain names as identifiers and means of communication (Rozhkova, 2015); study on domain name and name of the file as innovative forms of text names produced by Internet technology (Dedova, Kuprienko, 2013); analysis of linguostylistic means for creating domain names (Kuprienko, 2010); research on domain name as a unit for constructing and identifying the network landscape of the online space, a unit which forms its structure and allows some of its parts to function as microsystems, creating entire ecosystems (Ryabchenko, 2016). Furthermore, domain spaces have started to be studied as separate communities. M. Z. Abdullaeva’s work investigates the spiritual role of Islamic media space of domain ‘UZ’ (Abdullaeva, 2020); L. N. Dukhanina and A. A. Maksimenko conduct an analysis of the network oncological discourse of a three-year retrospective in the top-level domain ‘RU’ (Dukhanina, Maksimenko, 2020). These articles prove the fact that while conducting the research in virtual space it is reasonable to take into account geolocation, analysis of sources and distribution platforms.

In our view, there is a need to outline another research direction, namely, the study of ideographic and numeric domains as onomastic units of the Internet space. This prospective study was designed to investigate current trends in naming numeric and ideographic domains, and to consider linguistic means that are used to make domain name unique and memorable. To achieve this goal, several tasks need to be addressed. Firstly, consider the role of the domain name in creating a sovereign Internet. Secondly, examine the domain as an object of linguistic research. Thirdly, identify the characteristics and trends in the formation of numeric and Chinese-character domains as the brightest examples. The fundamentally new aspect is the consideration of ideographic and numeric domains as unique objects of network naming, as in some cases, domain names represent a fundamentally new phenomenon in onomastics, rather than simply duplicating offline onyms. The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that the obtained data can be in demand in the analysis of the linguistic development of Internet space and the development of marketing strategies.

The material for the study is based on the findings of theoretical research, providing an overview of Internet onyms and the development of onomastics in Internet discourse. Additionally, it is important to note that the material selection is not limited to publications in the Russian language. We made an attempt to analyze materials in English and Chinese.

As for linguistic material, more than 50 domain names were selected. Most of the examples are given from the Chinese Internet zone, though certain trends are exemplified by a few examples from other domain zones. The choice is motivated by the increasing number of numeric and character domains in the Chinese internet space and their growing significance. The employed research methods involve analyzing and synthesizing theoretical and practical material, classifying examples chosen for analysis, and describing the obtained data. The selected domain names were categorized based on specific criteria to facilitate analysis and interpretation. The data obtained from the analysis were described to provide a comprehensive understanding of the observed trends and patterns in the selected domain names. The inclusion of multiple languages in the analysis reflects the global nature of Internet communication and the growing significance of such domains in the Chinese Internet space.

Domain as a toponym in the virtual linguistic landscape

The study of domain names reveals the need to understand the mechanisms of Internet onomastics. Similar to how physical space is surrounded by buildings, signs, and addresses, virtual space is surrounded by website names, nicknames, domain names. What and how we see largely depends on browser design, our settings and permissions, including cookies, content, and website design.

Toponymy of virtual landscape is a relatively new field of study. According to N. A. Ryabchenko, “domain is a part of the online space, forming its structure and at the same time allowing parts of this space to function as a microsystem, creating entire ecosystems in which users are provided with the necessary functioning capabilities and access to information” (Ryabchenko, 2016: 99). Thus, domain names are a kind of toponym in the virtual Internet space, participating in the construction of virtual reality. As V. I. Suprun writes, all information on the Internet is built on an onomastic axis and proper names permeate all texts. Onyms to be studied are the names of functioning parts and units within the Network (cit. ex: Virtual onyms in the Italian Internet environment[2], 2017: 18).

We share L. P. Son’s opinion that “electronic onomastics can become one of its (Internet communication culture) ‘building blocks’, as the harmony of form and content (the concept of the sender and recipient) of an electronic proper name is culture itself” (Son, 2009: 221). Within onomastic studies, questions have been raised about the names of participants in virtual communication or anthroponyms, ergonyms, and pragmatonyms in Internet communication (Zubareva, 2021b; Son, 2009; Son, 2012). However, when it comes to anthroponyms in Internet communication, researchers often conclude that “participants wear masks” (Son, 2009: 218). On the other hand, onomastics of domain names implies different principles of functioning. As noted by A. V. Zubareva, proper names must possess such qualities as uniqueness and attractiveness (Zubareva, 2021a: 101). Meanwhile, the domain name identifies the owner, the goods. Many argue that it serves as a means of communication, a means of information exchange. So, M. Rozhkova concludes that domain names in addition to the technical function of addressing on the Internet and virtual identification began to contribute to the identification of goods, works, services of some producers, sellers and performers among similar goods, works and services “in reality” (Rozhkova, 2015: 62).

Virtual space is an environment for constructing a virtual identity. As A. V. Zubareva notes, the onomasticon of Internet communication is formed in accordance with the logic of the interaction between online (Internet environment) and offline (the familiar “real” world) (Zubareva, 2021b: 122). We cannot but admit that partly domain naming trends are taken from physical reality. For example, in the Russian Internet space, domain names with automobile region codes corresponding to Russian regions can be found, such as 66.ru (Yekaterinburg platform), 161.ru (Rostov-on-Don platform). In addition, the site 66.мвд.рф belongs to the Main Directorate of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia for the Sverdlovsk Region. To decode why exactly these numbers are used the Internet user is supposed to know automobile codes of Russian regions. Furthermore, domain names 8848.ru (The Vertical Film Festival) and 8848-altitude.ru (a ski clothing brand) refer to Mount Everest's peak. These examples confirm the opinion that the involvement of cultural data allows us to reveal the content and meaning of onyms (including Internet onyms) relying on the interaction of proper names and the culture of the people (Madieva, Suprun, 2017: 38).

We conclude that a domain name is a toponym in virtual space. They are grouped “zonally”, either geographically/regionally (ru, 中国) or used by certain communities and organizations (com, net, info). When classifying domain names, they are often categorized based on their affiliation with a particular zone, national identity, or a field of use. Because of this, there is a need to understand new onomastic phenomena and the mechanisms through which they arose.

Domain name as a part of sovereign Internet

In order to understand why national and numeric domains are of great interest, the section below provides a brief overview of domain naming as an issue of concern for national security. Today, the Internet space becomes not only a zone of interaction but also a platform for asserting interests, propaganda, and lobbying. P. V. Zakalkin emphasizes that the control of cyberspace is largely monopolized by the United States, with other countries being mere consumers and thus susceptible to destructive influence. Therefore, for countries like Russia and China, aiming to assert their positions globally, defending their interests in the Internet environment is crucial (Ignatov, 2022; Gabdrakhmanova, Mahmutov, 2018; Shirin, 2014). Language plays a key role in this, with Cyrillic and ideographic scripts trying to find their place in Internet communication (Zakalkin, 2022).

Currently, there are national domains worldwide. According to a report (Internet Tendencies[3], 2021), domain RU ranks 8^th and domain CN ranks 2^nd among top-level domains. In Russia there is even a special project for developing an ecosystem for supporting domain names and postal addresses in national languages, primarily in the Cyrillic domain “РФ”[4]. The development of the global domain space is closely linked to the creation of domains in national languages (IDN TLDs)[5]. According to a report (Internet Tendencies, 2021)1, there are a total of 156 IDN top-level domains worldwide, with the highest number using Chinese characters (56), followed by domains using the Arabic alphabet (33), and Cyrillic domains (17). The most demanded IDN top-level domain is .中國 with 1.8 million domain names. China has contributed a lot into development of Chinese-character domains. The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology has issued the “The14th Five-Year Plan for the Development of the Information and Communication Industry”[6], that purposes to improve Chinese domain name application environment and to further promote the development and application of Chinese domain names.

S. Couture and S. Topin, discussing sovereignty, note that Russia and China insist on implementing state sovereignty on the Internet. They suggest that the development of Cyrillic and ideographic domain names is an attempt to realize digital sovereignty and resist the hegemony of the Latin and English-speaking world (Couture, Topin, 2020). However, the main restraining factor for the development of Cyrillic and Chinese-character domains is the low level of universal acceptance of such domain names and, above all, difficulties with using email addresses written in national alphabet characters.

Domain name as an object of linguistic analysis

In addition to its potential for political influence, a domain name holds commercial value, and linguistic creativity plays a crucial role in domain naming. It is already universally acknowledged that “domain names used specifically for commercial purposes become a generic identifier of goods (works, services) – like a trademark, an indication of the place of production/origin of products, a universal barcode, etc” (Rozhkova, 2015: 62). A domain name has a complex structure, including several levels: top-level, second-level, and subdomains. Concerning top-level domains, A. V. Zubareva mentions the possibility of playing with first-level domain names. For example, using .NET can create a provocative and humorous effect and even influence offline onomastics. The domain .ME (Montenegro) has undergone commercialization and is used for personal blogs and socially oriented sites. In addition, domain .AI (Anguilla) has become extremely popular in 2023.[7] Undoubtfully, the reason is the growing popularity of artificial intelligence and the continuous discussions of this topic in the media and social networks. Moreover, numeric domain names can also be combined with specific domain extensions (e.g., .com, .net, .org) to create unique combinations.

A. V. Kuznetsov suggests that some domain names can be considered a type of advertising text. Analyzing the linguistic features of German domain names, the researcher has revealed language play types such as the formation of neologisms, violation of language norms, use of colloquial word forms, substitution of letter combinations with numbers, stylization to foreign words, and the use of phonetic spelling (Kuznetsov, 2012). Using these means of language games helps to create novel and memorable domain names. Similar trends can be observed in the context of domain naming in other countries. Historically, domain names were created using Latin letters and numbers. Creating a domain name is limited by certain rules, such as the absence of spaces. On the other hand, a unique and user-friendly domain name needs to be created to distinguish a website from others and make it stand out for users and search engines. Thus, D. A. Zhiltsov claims that naming should correspond to the chosen general marketing strategy and be based on basic naming principles developed by Internet marketers, webmasters, site optimizers, and other digital marketing specialists over the years. The author provides several recommendations, including not to register Cyrillic domains (Zhiltsov, 2020). However, Chinese researchers convinced that native language domain names are not only easy to remember, but also easily promote and disseminate information, have a prominent native language image, which demonstrates cultural confidence. They can also create a safer and more trustworthy Internet environment for Internet users and improve international cyberspace governance on the Internet (Ke, 2020: 166).

O. V. Dedova and M. S. Kuprienko emphasize that “on the modern Internet, the domain name is a key component of hypertext navigation and composition.” Their research reports that site traffic directly depends on the memorability and reproducibility of the domain name. Indeed, domain name becomes a mnemonic tool, reflecting the specifics of the information posted on the site, and also an element of advertising. In view of this, the researchers believe that the main strategy for increasing the effectiveness of a domain name is determined by its relevance with meaningful linguistic units, which can be achieved in various ways” (Dedova, Kuprienko, 2013: 65). On the other hand, A. V. Zubareva notes that Internet environment incorporates traditional onyms, and this process can involve the simple transfer of existing onyms into Internet communication and the creation of new proper names for virtualized objects. She emphasizes the significant influence of programming practices on domain naming trends, such as the absence of spaces, the use of underscores, and the use of uppercase letters.

Furthermore, M. S. Kuprienko mentions that “a modern domain name is intended to be not only an element of navigation, but also a mnemonic device reflecting the specifics of the information posted on the site, and an element of advertising (the site itself, the goods, services offered” (Kuprienko, 2010: 80). The author points out several ways how domain name may be formed: the domain name matches the site title or part of it, the website theme is taken as the domain name, the domain name is taken to be a word that is a hyponym in relation to the nomination site header, the domain name is formed by combining fragments of the site header, the domain was created by truncating the site name or one of its keywords, abbreviation, disabbreviation. There are also a lot of means of language game that help to make the domain name unique, i.e. the use of Latin letters that match the Russian ones, playing on the homonymy of the final part of the domain name (the so-called top-level domain, whose name is written after the dot), replacing a word or part of a word with a letter or number (Kuprienko, 2010).

Meanwhile, M. Yu. Karpenko introduces a new term siteonym and clarifies what exactly should be classified as siteonyms. According to the researcher, firstly, these are names, that users find in the address bar (for example, www.google.com), secondly, the title, that users see on the main page (Karpenko, 2012). Furthermore, Karpenko investigates the motives of nomination of websites, mainly domain names, and classifies them into essential, qualitative, locative, temporal, possessive, patronymic, memorial, ideological, symbolic, associative, nominal, situational domain names. According to the research, siteonyms with essential motivation have a significant advantage. This may be due to the fact that the site creators, in order to increase the number of potential visitors, already start with the domain name and site name, and advertise its content or functions (Karpenko, 2014). Subsequently, the study of siteonyms was continued in the works that mention siteonyms as a type of ideonyms (Chaykisova, 2017), that examine cultural and linguistic aspects of German siteonyms (Daldinova, Bardaeva, 2021; Daldinova, Buraeva, 2023; Filimonenko, 2023). These articles contribute a lot to the research of linguistic point of view. Though we believe that it is not right to examine domain names and titles of the sites as similar objects. The reason is that different means and strategies are employed to create these onyms, for example, there are certain technical restrictions, i.e. titles of the site can use different graphical styles and colors, while structure, length, use of special characters and punctuation marks in domain naming have some peculiarities. Moreover, when national top-level domain in Russia was discussed, it was decided to choose. РФ but not “py”. The reason is that domain “ру” written with Cyrillic letters resembles domain of Paraguay (“py”) written with Latin letters. Thus, instead there is Cyrillic domain “рус”.

In summary, linguistic analysis of domain names reveals the creativity involved in their nomination, influenced by both commercial and linguistic considerations. The use of language play, adherence to marketing strategies and cultural aspects, contribute to the linguistic landscape of domain names.

Linguistic analysis of numeric and Chinese-character domain names

The analysis of Chinese data confirms one of the obvious peculiarities of the Chinese Internet space – the appeal to characters and numbers. And if character domains are a phenomenon of the last few years, then digital domains have appeared a long time ago. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, the figures are very close and understandable to the Chinese. As Zhu Guiwen notes the Chinese are accustomed to operating with numbers and using numbers to create onyms. Even e-mails most often consist of numbers rather than letters. (Zhu, 2014: 43). Secondly, the Chinese put a certain meaning into the numbers (Akhrenova, Dubinina, 2022; Han, 2022). Moving on to the consideration of numeric domains, in the contemporary Internet space in China, numbers continue to play a crucial role, especially in digital onomastics. Currently, around 9 million domain names consist solely of digits, accounting for over 3% of the total number of domains. Here are some findings from the research conducted by Domains Index on digital domains[8]: there is an increasing number of digital domains, the quantity of digital domains in new domain zones surpasses that in old ones; the highest number of digital domains is found in the COM zone, among national zones China (.cn) leads in the number of digital domains; popular domains typically consist of 3-4 digits, with the longest domains having 63 digits. As for numeric domain name’s structure, there can be found repeating numbers, that are often considered memorable; sequential numbers, that are popular for their simplicity; lucky numbers, that is numeric combinations that are considered lucky in various cultures, such as 888 in Chinese culture; premium numbers, that are considered premium, and businesses may be willing to pay a higher price for them; year-based numbers. Numbers can also be combined with letters.

The numbers in Internet communication can be considered as a kind of code, and decoding them is possible only with the information based on the speaker’s culture and language, as they have national and linguistic identity (Dubinina, 2022: 26). Furthermore, An Zhiwei claims that digits have sociocultural meaning, and in China this effect is mostly based on homonymy (An, 2002).

Рисунок 1. Таблица самых популярных числовых доменных имен

Meanwhile, similar trend of popularizing numeric domains can be found not only in China. According to the chart of most popular numeric names1 (Figure 1), the most popular combination is 888 and it is registered in 402 domain zones. It turns out, that in different cultures it has different meaning quite often positive, including “eternity”, “limitless potential”, “power”, “success”, “prosperity” etc. As for China, the number 8 has gained success, because it is homophonic with “发”, that means to make a fortune. For example, a digital lottery trading platform uses 8791.com domain, that encourages users to get rich (加油发财). The second most popular combination 360 conveys a message of “harmony”, “integrity” etc. For example, domain 360.cn is used for security software pointing out the importance of complex safety, domain 360.yandex.ru is used for a set of services for solving every day and work problems.